Author: Sarah Potts

New Maryland Extension Livestock Newsletter

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The University of Maryland Extension Livestock Team recently published the first issue of its new newsletter, “Cattle Tales Livestock Newsletter“.  This newsletter will bring Maryland’s producers timely information related to a variety of livestock species.  The newsletter will be made available on a quarterly basis and archived issues can be accessed at the following link: https://go.umd.edu/beef-cattle-resources.

If you’d like to subscribe to the newsletter, please fill in your email address using the following link: https://go.umd.edu/subscribe-livestock-newsletter.

Are Your Cattle Cool? Tips for Managing the Summer Heat

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Dr. Sarah Potts, Dairy & Beef Specialist
University of Maryland Extension

With temperatures well into the 90s during and heat indices as high as 107°F during these last couple weeks, there’s no doubt that the summer heat has arrived.  Making adjustments to management and/or housing of both beef and dairy cattle is crucial to minimizing the negative health and production impacts of heat stress.

Importance of Managing Heat Stress

There is no question that heat stress can negatively impact animal performance.  Exposure to heat stress reduces daily gains, milk production, and reproductive efficiency, though specific impacts on production varies depending on the magnitude and duration of heat exposure.  Prolonged exposure to heat stress is much more detrimental than short-term heat stress and its effects linger long after temperatures drop back below the heat stress threshold.  For example, it can take up to 5 weeks for a breeding bull to recover sperm quality after a bout of mild to moderate heat stress.  Exposure to heat stress also reduces oocyte quality and embryo viability, and thus, negatively impacts fertility of the cow.  In addition to its effects on fertility, recent studies also indicate that prolonged exposure to heat stress during gestation can have negative, long-lasting impacts on calf performance.  A recent study in dairy cattle showed that dairy heifers born to dams exposed to heat stress during the last 2 months of pregnancy were smaller, had a reduced productive life by 5 months, and produced an average of 8 lb/d less during their first 3 lactations than those born to dams who were cooled during the last 2 months of pregnancy.  Thus, the value of managing heat stress supersedes the obvious advantages associated with fertility, milk production, and growth.

Signs of Heat Stress in Cattle

Livestock producers often utilize the Temperature Humidity Index (THI) to assess risk for heat stress, which takes into account both the environmental temperature and humidity.  Historically, the gold standard THI threshold for heat stress in cattle is 72.  However, recent studies suggest that for high producing dairy cows, the THI threshold should be closer to 68.

Generally, cattle that are heat stressed will exhibit increased respiration rate and standing behavior, reduced feed intake, and an increase in shade-seeking behaviors.  According to the USDA Animal Research Service’s Meat Animal Research Center (MARC), there are six stages of heat stress in cattle which can be identified by various behaviors.  Cattle in Stage 6 require immediate attention.

How to Reduce Heat Stress

While there’s a good chance that cattle in our region will experience some degree of heat stress during the summer months, producers should try to reduce the extent and duration of heat stress exposure by making adjustments to their management and housing strategies.

Avoid working animals during the day.  Schedule transportation or other activities for early in the morning (preferred) or late in the evening.  Any stressful events, such as vaccination, weaning, or dehorning should be rescheduled if there is an impending heat wave.

Ensure ample access to fresh, clean water.  Water is required for all animals to maintain body temperature and under normal conditions, a high producing dairy cow will drink up to 50 gallons of water per day, while a beef cow will drink up to 15 gallons per day.  Heat stress may cause cattle to increase their water intake up to 50%.  Waterers should be installed in areas that are easily accessible for cattle and flow rate should be sufficient to support increased water demand.  For dairy cattle, a waterer should be located near the exit of the milking parlor.

Provide shade.  This is most basic component of heat abatement and should be provided for all cattle during high temperatures.  For confined cattle, this is often in the form of a barn, shed, or shade cloth.  Producers with cattle on pasture often rely on natural shade provided by trees. These producers may also consider providing access to a sacrifice area with man made shade during the day and pasture turn-out at night.

Ensure adequate ventilation.  Poor ventilation is often an issue inside barns or other man made structures.  These facilities should be opened up as much as possible to promote natural airflow by opening side curtains, windows, etc.  Fans should also be installed in key areas, such as the feed bunk, over the free-stalls or bedded pack, and holding pen (dairy) to promote airflow.

Consider cooling with water only after there is shade and adequate ventilation.  To be effective, this heat abatement strategy must be paired with sufficient airflow or fans to promote evaporative cooling.  Simply soaking cattle without adequate airflow will only succeed in creating a more humid environment around the animals.  Sprinklers/misters can be strategically placed at the feed bunk and the holding pen (dairy) for optimal cooling.

Coronavirus Food Assistance Program (CFAP): What Beef Producers Need to Know

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Dr. Sarah Potts, Dairy & Beef Specialist
University of Maryland Extension

Background:
The USDA CFAP Program has allocated $16 billion in funds for direct payments to farmers to help with the fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic. The funds are derived from two sources: the Coronavirus Aid Relief and Economic Security (CARES) Act and the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) Charter Act. Funds from the CARES Act are meant to help farmers cope with price reductions incurred between mid-January and mid-April while funds from the CCC Charter Act are meant to help farmers cope with market disruptions.

Eligibility:
All producers who incurred a 5% or greater reduction in commodity prices due to the COVID-19 pandemic are eligible to apply for aid. If more than 75% of an applicant’s income is from farming, there are no gross income restrictions. However, if less than 75% of income is derived from non-farming sources, the average adjusted gross income on the applicant’s 2016, 2017, and 2018 tax returns must be less than $900,000. Participation in risk management programs, such as the Dairy Margin Coverage Program, and Small Business Administration (SBA) programs, such as the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP), do not affect a producer’s eligibility for CFAP aid.

Funding Limitations:
Individual producers or farms are eligible for up to $250,000 of aid. However, if your farm business is structured as a Corporation, Limited Liability Company, Limited Partnership, etc., you may be entitled to a higher limit of up to $750,000 depending on the number of shareholders who contribute more than 400 hours of labor annually to the farm business.

Applications and Payments:
The application period begins on Tuesday, May 26th and goes through August 28th, 2020. Producers must call their local Farm Service Agency (FSA) office in order to schedule an appointment to complete the application process. Producers will receive 80% of their payment as soon as their application is completed and processed. The remaining 20% of their payment will be dispersed at a later date, as funds are available.

A payment estimate calculator and other resources will be made available at https://www.farmers.gov/cfap beginning May 26th to help farmers estimate the amount of aid they should receive.

Beef producers are eligible to apply for aid based on the number of cattle marketed between January 15 and April 15, 2020 (CARES Act payments; column 1 in Table 1) and the greatest number of cattle on inventory between April 16 and May 14, 2020 (CCC Charter Act payments; column 2 in Table 1). Payment rates vary depending on the type of cattle sold or in inventory during these time periods.

Table 1. CFAP Payment Structure Based on Cattle Class.

CFAP Payment Rates for Different Cattle Classes.
*The “All Other Cattle” class excludes those cattle that are intended or raised for dairy purposes.

Example:
A beef producer applies for aid as an individual. She sold a total of 3 cull cows and 20 feeder cattle (<600 lb) between January 15 and April 15. From April 16 to May 14, she managed 30 cow/calf pairs, 1 mature breeding bull, and 3 feeder cattle (>600 lb) that she intends to finish out and sell as freezer beef.

This producer should be eligible for up to $250,000 of aid because she is applying as an individual. The total maximum payment she can expect is calculated as follows:

CARES Act Funds (column 1): $2,316

  • $276 for the 3 cull cows sold: $92/head × 3 head
  • $2,040 for the 20 feeder calves (<600 lb) sold: $102/head × 20 head

CCC Charter Act Funds (column 2): $2,112

  • $1,980 for the 30 cow/calf pairs: 30 cows + 30 calves = 60 head × $33/head
  • $33 for the breeding bull: 1 bull × $33/head
  • $99 for the 3 feeder cattle (>600 lb): 3 head × $33/head

This producer is expected to receive a maximum payment of $4,428. The initial payment this producer can expect to receive is $3,542.40 (80% of $4,428).

For additional information, visit https://www.farmers.gov/cfap or contact your local FSA office.

Optimizing Drying for Hay and Haylage

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Dr. Amanda Grev, Pasture & Forage Specialist
University of Maryland Extension

Along with making corn and soybean planting a challenge, spring rains make for a challenging
forage harvest as well. The faster we can get our hay or haylage dry enough to bale or wrap,
the more we can reduce the risk of rain damage and retain a higher quality end product. Follow
these guidelines to help optimize drying time during forage harvest this spring.

The Forage Drying Process
Let’s think for a moment about the basic principles behind forage drying. When forage is cut, it
is around 75 to 80% moisture but it must be dried down to 60 to 65% moisture for haylage or
14 to 18% moisture for dry hay. During this wilting and drying process, plants continue the
natural process of respiration, breaking down stored sugars to create energy and carbon
dioxide. The longer it takes the forage to dry, the longer the forage continues to respire in the
field. Data suggests that 2 to 8% of the dry matter may be lost due to respiration, resulting in
energy losses and an overall reduction in forage quality. This means that a faster drying time
will not only get the forage off the field faster but will also lower the amount of dry matter and
nutrients lost through respiration.

The drying process happens in several distinct phases; knowing and understanding these
phases can help us manage our forage in a way that will maximize drying rates and ensure
nutrient retention within the harvested forage.

Phase One: Moisture Loss via Stomatal Openings
The first phase in the drying process is moisture loss from the leaves. This happens through the
stomata, which are the openings in the leaf surface that allow for moisture and gas exchange
between the leaf and the outside air. These stomata are naturally open in daylight and closed
in darkness. After a plant is cut, respiration continues but gradually declines until the moisture
content has fallen below 60%. Rapid drying in this initial phase to lose the first 15 to 20%
moisture will reduce loss of starch and sugar and preserve more dry matter and total digestible
nutrients in the harvested forage.

Solar radiation is the key to maximizing drying during this initial phase. This can be
accomplished by using a wide swath (at least 70% of the cut area), which will maximize the
amount of forage exposed to sunlight. A wider swath will increase the swath temperature,
reduce the swath humidity, and keep the stomata open to allow for moisture loss, encouraging
rapid and more even drying immediately after cutting. In contrast, narrow windrows will have
higher humidity and less drying, allowing respiration to continue and leading to further dry
matter and nutrient losses. Research has shown that a wide swath immediately after cutting is
the single most important factor in maximizing the initial drying rate and preserving digestible
dry matter. A full width swath will increase the drying surface of the swath by 2.8 times, and moisture reductions from 85 to 60% can be reached in as little as 5 to 7 hours. Haylage from
wide swaths has been shown to have lower respiration losses during drying, greater total
digestible nutrients, and more lactic and acetic acid, improving forage quality and fermentation.
During this phase, a wide swath is more important than conditioning as most of the respiration
takes place in the leaves. While conditioning is important for drying stems, it has less impact on
drying leaves and therefore will have little effect on this initial moisture loss. This means that
for haylage, a wide swath may be more important than conditioning.

Phase Two: Stem Moisture Loss
The second phase in the drying process includes moisture loss from the stems in addition to the
leaves. Once moisture levels have dropped to the point where plant respiration ceases, the
closing of the stomata traps the remaining moisture, slowing further drying. At this stage,
conditioning can help increase the drying rate because it provides openings within the plant’s
structure, providing an exit path for moisture and allowing drying to continue at a faster rate.
For maximum effectiveness, be sure the conditioner is adjusted properly based on the stem
thickness (roughly 5% of leaves showing some bruising) and choose the best conditioner based
on your forage type. For example, roller conditioners are often preferred for alfalfa due to
reduced leaf loss.

Phase Three: Loss of Tightly Held Water
The final phase of the drying process is the loss of tightly held water, particularly from the
stems. Stems generally have a lower surface to volume ratio, fewer stomata, and a semi-
impervious waxy cuticle that minimizes water loss so conditioning is critical to enhance drying
during this phase.

Additional Factors
In addition to swath width and conditioning, several other strategies can be used to improve
drying time. Be sure to cut forages at the proper height, leaving 2 to 3 inches for alfalfa and 4
inches for cool-season grasses. Not only will this result in improved stand persistence, earlier
regrowth, and sooner subsequent cuttings, but the stubble will help to elevate the swath and
promote air flow and rapid drying. If possible, mow earlier in the day, preferably mid- to late-
morning after the dew has dried off. This will allow for a full day of drying right away,
maximizing exposure to sunlight and resulting in a faster drop in moisture and reduced
respiration. And finally, raking should occur when the forage is above 40% moisture. Raking
the forage while it is still pliable helps to reduce leaf loss and maintain forage quality. Adjust
the rake to minimize the amount of tines touching the ground to avoid soil contamination.

In conclusion, cutting in the morning and using wide swaths to take advantage of sunlight is key
to both faster drying and preserving digestible dry matter. Remember, a wide swath enhances
leaf drying while conditioning expedites stem drying; both are needed to make high quality hay.

Feeding the Gestating Cow

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Sarah Potts, Dairy & Beef Specialist
University of Maryland Extension

As fall progresses, spring-calving beef producers should be thinking about how they will maintain their pregnant cows throughout the winter.  The nutritional requirements for gestation increase during the second and third trimesters, which coincides with colder temperatures and decreased forage availability from pasture.

Adequate Nutrition is Vital

Ensuring proper nutrition is an important component of maintaining animal productivity and efficiency.  Failing to meet nutritional requirements during pregnancy can have devastating effects on future productivity of the cow.  Undernourishment during pregnancy can result in reduced body condition at calving, increased rates of dystocia (calving difficulty), decreased colostrum quality and quantity, and poor lactation performance.  Cows that are in less than ideal body condition at calving generally take longer to begin cycling and showing signs of estrus (heat) after calving, and are at higher risk for being open at the end of the breeding season.

Poor gestational nutrition can have indirect, but profound, effects on the survivability and performance of calves.  Dystocia is associated with increased calf mortality and inadequate consumption of quality colostrum can lead to increased calf morbidity (illness) and mortality.  In addition, poor milk production by the dam will prevent her calf from achieving desirable gains.

Meeting Winter Nutritional Needs

Although the nutritional needs associated with pregnancy increases during a time when feed availability is limited for spring calving herds, the good news is that there are many strategies that can be used to minimize costs.  Ultimately, producers will have to choose for themselves which feeding practice that best fits their situation and goals.

Beginning in the late fall when pasture growth becomes limited, stockpiled forages can be used to feed cows.  Generally, stockpiled forages can meet the nutritional needs of pregnant cows during mild to moderate temperatures as long as sufficient quantities are available.  However, as winter sets in and temperatures drop, supplemental feeds may be necessary to offset the increase in maintenance energy requirements that are associated with lower temperatures.  Additional protein, such as alfalfa hay or soybean meal mixes, may also be required if forage protein content becomes inadequate.

Late-fall grazing of corn residue can be used to spare stockpiled forages for later in the winter.  However, this is not always a practical option for many producers since these fields are often not fenced or in proximity to a water source.  An additional protein source is usually required, especially after the most nutrient dense portions of the residue (leaves and husk) have been consumed.

Many producers often elect to supplement with hay during the winter months, which can be a good option.  However, it is important to know the nutrient composition of the hay to ensure sufficient protein and digestible dry matter is supplied.  The amount of hay that a cow will consume depends on the quality.  Low quality hay (<52% TDN) is less digestible than high quality hay, which can limit feed intake by increasing gut fill.  During the last two trimesters of pregnancy, mature cows generally consume 2 to 2.5% of their body weight on a dry-matter basis.  For a 1,200 lb cow, this equates to 24 to 30 lb of hay per day on a dry-matter basis, or approximately 27 to 33 lb per day on an as-fed basis.  Knowing approximately how much hay cows will need is helpful in determining how much must be purchased for the season and how much will need to be fed each week.

Additional feeds, such as corn silage, may also be fed during the winter months if good quality hay and/or stockpiled forages are insufficient to meet the needs of the cow herd.  However, this option may increase the cost of the winter feeding program.

Evaluation of the Winter Feeding Program

A key area to look at when evaluating the winter feeding program is body condition.  Body condition (1 to 9 scale) of cows should be assessed at weaning to determine whether or not additional feed will be required throughout the winter.  The ideal body condition score at calving is 5 to 6.  If cows are too thin at weaning (less than a score of 5), additional feeds may be required so that they can gain the weight necessary to achieve optimal performance after calving.  Conversely, if cows are too fat at weaning (greater than a score of 6), then they will not require as much feed during the winter.  Assessment of body condition at this time is important to planning and allocating feeds for the winter.

Condition should also be assessed 60-90 days before calving so that additional adjustments to the feeding regime can be made if necessary.  Ultimately, body condition at calving and subsequent cow and calf performance, will indicate the overall success of the winter feeding and management program.

Water: The Forgotten Nutrient

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Sarah Potts, Dairy and Beef Specialist, University of Maryland Extension

As summer heats up, water becomes more important for cattle.  An animal’s body is comprised of 70% water and adequate water consumption is required to maximize performance.  It’s no secret that withholding or restricting water can decrease feed intake and reduce gains.  Yet many producers often forget to assess whether or not their animals have optimal access to high quality water.  An animal’s water requirement is met through consumption of feed and drinking.  Many feeds, such as silage and grasses, contain a large proportions of water that help cattle meet their water requirement.  Additional requirements are met through drinking.

Water Requirements and Intake

Water requirements vary depending on the physiological state of the cattle.  Reproductive status, lactation status, rate and composition of gain, and amount of physical activity will affect how much water cattle need to consume.  Lactating cows will consume more water, on average, than growing, finishing, or pregnant cattle (Figure 1).

Temperature will also affect water requirements, with higher temperatures increasing voluntary water intake for all cattle regardless of physiological state (Figure 1).  For lactating cows, water intake will increase by over 23% when the ambient temperature rises from 60 to 80°F.  Across a similar temperature shift, growing cattle will increase their water intake by 35%.

 Figure 1. Water intake of various types of cattle across increasing ambient temperature.

Management factors, such as diet composition and physical access and palatability of drinking water, also affect how much water cattle drink.  Because of their higher moisture content, diets that contain a high proportion of silage or pasture can reduce the amount of water consumed through drinking.  Diets that contain high levels of protein, salts, or other diuretics will increase water intake through drinking.

Water Quality

Not only is it important for cattle to have access to sufficient quantities of water, the quality of that water is also important.  Water quality is assessed by examining factors such as palatability, chemical properties (e.g., pH, dissolved solids, hardness, soluble salts, etc.), presence of toxic compounds, mineral content, and presence of harmful bacteria (e.g., coliforms).

The level of total soluble salts can provide some indication of water quality.  Of the soluble salts, sodium chloride (NaCl) is often a major driver of the total soluble salts content in water.  Other major contributors to the total soluble salts content include: bicarbonate, sulfate, calcium, magnesium, and silica.  High concentrations of soluble salts can decrease water intake and ultimately reduce production.  Total soluble salt concentrations less than 1,000 mg/L are ideal.  Levels above 3,000 mg/L may start to impact production and water with total soluble salt concentrations over 5,000 mg/L should not be used as a primary drinking source for pregnant or lactating cows.

The concentration of certain minerals can also be used to assess water quality, with nitrate and sulfate concentrations being of most interest.  Nitrate concentrations below 44 mg/L are considered safe for all types of cattle to consume.  Over short periods of time, cattle can tolerate nitrate levels up to 221 mg/L with modest effects on production and health; however, concentrations above 221 mg/L can result in significantly reduced production and serious health problems.  Cattle can generally tolerate sulfate concentrations up to 2,500 mg/L for a short duration (up to 90 days), although concentrations less 500 mg/L and 1,000 mg/L are considered ideal for calves and adult cattle, respectively.

Concentrations of other compounds are also used to assess water quality.  The table below shows the recommended upper limits of several compounds.

Reference:

National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Eight Revised Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/19014