In Flexible Citizenship, Ong describes how transnationalism has influenced and changed how she views Chinese cultural identity. As a huaqiao Chinese, or individual of Chinese descent born overseas, Ong had always espoused an ambivalent, albeit idealistic view of her ancestral homeland. While she accepted that poverty and political oppression might exist, she also envisioned a “kinder, gentler Chinese people” than those she knew in the “diaspora,” a notion that had developed on account of Western modern history and themedia (42). Upon visiting China for the first time, Ong did not feel an authentic connection as initially hoped, but rather a profound sense of “alienation”, which was promoted on both sides of her cultural divide. While her Western friends criticized her for visiting places in South China that did not meet their view of what China should be, native Chinese discriminated against how Chinese she actually appeared. As an overseas Chinese, she was expected to embrace “Western modernity” and not dress as a “college student.” (43). In essence, Ong hoped to feel welcomed home in China, but was rather viewed as a foreigner.

Just as transnational notions of cultural identity in China allow Ong to experience dismay and alienation, particularly with regards to how one is perceived by others, so does the outcome of the Islamic Revolution on the protagonist in Marjane Satrapi’s graphic memoir Persepolis. As we shall see with various examples, the images present in this genre further emphasize how cultural identity is expressed and conveyed to a wider global audience.

In the opening pages of Persepolis, we meet 10 year old Marji, who has recently been made to wear a veil in school. Having grown up in a modernized, Westernized Iranian society, the notion of wearing a veil seems antiquated and senseless. The opening images of Marji’s unhappy school portrait coupled with flashbacks of her class mocking the veil highlight this initial alienation.  As we progress to the second page, we see that her identity up to then had been cultivated by a secular French education espousing Western values.

Yet, with the dismissal of the “capitalist system” in favor of a “cultural revolution”, these images introduce how required gender separation and new attire for Muslim women shape Marji’s eventual perception of herself as an Iranian woman at home and abroad (particularly as she transitions between Iran and Europe). Eventually, as we learn, the enforced dress code and detachment from Western culture lead Marji to acts of cultural defiance, which are detailed throughout the novel. In one instance, the posters of Kim Wild and Iron Maiden received as gifts from her parents inspire her to wear American fashion in addition to her veil, which causes her trouble with the “Guardian of the Revolution” (Satrapi 131-133). In another example, a sequence depicting a confrontation between Marji and her school principal over further fashion infractions demonstrate the societal clash of Western influences on the dress expectations for Muslim women. The anger shown by Marji, particularly as the principal attempts to take her bracelet, and the act of Marji covering her ears when she is informed of her expulsion further highlight this (143).

Overall, with both Ong and Satrapi, we see how transnationalism enables perceived notions of cultural identity to evolve. While Ong initially feels alienated from her Chinese cultural identity upon visiting her ancestral homeland because she, as a huaqiao, does not espouse the “modern West”, Marji feels isolated in her Iranian homeland because the previous culture that she had known, has been limited. Instead of viewing these dilemmas in cultural identity as binary, however, the written and visual responses of Ong and Satrapi demonstrate diverse perspectives and challenge us to think beyond defined borders. In particular, the images of Iranian history in Satrapi’s graphic memoir which are interpreted by global audiences, the multiple translations of Satrapi’s text into different languages, and its recent film adaption further attest to this spirit.